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@ -7,8 +7,15 @@ tags: [python]
---
Other languages have done similar things (interfaces in Java), but think the Rust comparison is
useful because both languages are "system." Mostly looking at how static polymorphism is implemented
in C++ and Rust, but also some comparisons to Rust behavior not strictly related to polymorphism.
useful because both languages are "system."
# System Differences
Worth noting differences in goals: polymorphism in C++ is only duck typing. Means that static
polymorphism happens separate from visibility, overloading, etc.
Rust's trait system is different (need a better way to explain that) which allows for trait markers,
auto-deriving, arbitrary self.
# Simple Example
@ -26,10 +33,11 @@ Same name and parameter signature, but return different types - `AsRef`
Rust has some types named by the compiler, but inaccessible in traits; can't return `impl SomeTrait`
from traits. Can return `impl Future` from free functions and structs, but traits can't use
compiler-generated types (associated types still need to name the type). Can have traits return
references (and use vtable, so no longer statically polymorphic), but typically get into all sorts
of lifetime issues. Can also use `Box` trait objects to avoid lifetime issues, but again, uses
vtable.
compiler-generated types (associated types still need to name the type).
Can have traits return references (`&dyn Trait`), but uses vtable (so no longer statically
polymorphic), and very likely get into all sorts of lifetime issues. Can use `Box<dyn Trait>` trait
objects to avoid lifetime issues, but again, uses vtable.
C++ doesn't appear to have the same restrictions, mostly because the "contract" is just duck typing.
@ -37,126 +45,70 @@ C++ doesn't appear to have the same restrictions, mostly because the "contract"
Shouldn't be too hard - `T::some_method()` should be compilable.
# Arbitrary `self`
Forms the basis for Rust's async system, but used very rarely aside from that.
[`std::enable_shared_from_this`](https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/memory/enable_shared_from_this)
`enable_unique_from_this` doesn't make a whole lot of sense, but Rust can do it:
```rust
struct MyStruct {}
impl MyStruct {
fn my_function(self: &Box<Self>) {}
}
fn main() {
let unboxed = MyStruct {};
// error[E0599]: no method named `my_function` found for struct `MyStruct` in the current scope
// unboxed.my_function();
let boxed = Box::new(MyStruct {});
boxed.my_function();
boxed.my_function();
}
```
Interestingly enough, can't bind `static` version using equality:
```c++
#include <iterator>
#include <vector>
#include <concepts>
std::uint64_t free_get_value() {
return 24;
}
class MyClass {
public:
// <source>:11:47: error: invalid pure specifier (only '= 0' is allowed) before ';' token
std::uint64_t get_value() = free_get_value;
};
int main() {
auto x = MyClass {};
}
```
---
Turns out the purpose of `enable_shared_from_this` is so that you can create new shared instances of
yourself from within yourself, it doesn't have anything to do with enabling extra functionality
depending on whether you're owned by a shared pointer. _At best_, you could have other runtime
checks to see if you're owned exclusively, or as part of some other smart pointer, but the type
system can't enforce that. And if you're _not_ owned by that smart pointer, what then? Exceptions?
UFCS would be able to help with this - define new methods like:
```c++
template<>
void do_a_thing(std::unique_ptr<MyType> value) {}
```
In this case, the extension is actually on `unique_ptr`, but the overload resolution applies only to
pointers of `MyType`. Note that `shared_ptr` and others seem to work by overloading `operator ->` to
proxy function calls to the delegates; you could inherit `std::shared_ptr` and specialize the
template to add methods for specific classes I guess? But it's still inheriting `shared_ptr`, you
can't define things directly on it.
Generally, "you can just use free functions" seems like a shoddy explanation. We could standardize
overload `MyClass_init` as a constructor and function similar to C, etc., but the language is
designed to assist us so we don't have to do crap like that. I do hope UFCS becomes a thing.
That said, it is interesting that for Rust, arbitrary self can be replaced with traits:
```rust
trait MyTrait {
fn my_function(&self);
}
impl MyTrait for Box<MyStruct> {
fn my_function(&self) {}
}
```
Just have to make sure that `MyTrait` is in scope all the time, and that's not fun. Ultimately, Rust
kinda already has UFCS. It's only "kinda" because you have to bring it in scope, and it's
potentially unclear when it's being used (extension traits), but it does get the basic job done.
# Default implementation
First: example of same name, different arguments. Not possible in Rust.
Can you bind a free function in a non-static way? Pseudocode:
```rust
trait MyTrait {
// This is illegal in Rust, even though name-mangling is unique:
// fn method(&self, value: usize) -> usize;
// Works if you rename the method, but is a pain to type:
fn method_with_options(&self, value: usize) -> usize;
fn method(&self) -> usize {
self.method_with_options(42);
}
}
struct MyStruct {}
impl MyTrait for MyStruct {
fn method_with_options(&self, value: usize) -> usize {
println!("{}", value);
value
}
}
```
Second: example of same name, different arguments, but can't provide default implementation.
```c++
template<typename T>
concept DoMethod = requires (T a) {
{ a.do_method(std::declval<std::uint64_t>() } -> std::same_as<std::uint64_t>;
{ a.do_method() } -> std::same_as<std::uint64_t>;
}
template<typename T> requires DoMethod<T>
std::uint64_t free_do_method(T& a) {
a.do_method(0);
template <typename T>
concept MyTrait = requires (T a) {
{ a.method(declval<std::size_t>()) } -> std::same_as<std::size_t>,
{ a.method() } -> std::same_as<std::size_t>,
}
// Each class must implement both `method` signatures.
class MyClass {
public:
std::uint64_t do_method(std::uint64_t value) {
return value * 2;
std::size_t method(std::size_t value) {
std::cout << value << std::endl;
return value;
}
// Because the free function still needs a "this" reference (unlike Javascript which has a
// floating `this`), we can't bind as `std::uint64_t do_method() = free_do_method`
// Also can't do it because it's a syntax error; can only use `= 0` to indicate pure virtual.
std::uint64_t do_method() {
return free_do_method(this);
std::size_t method() {
return method(42);
}
};
// Can write free functions as the default and then call explicitly, but for trivial
// implementations (replacing defaults) it's not likely to be worth it.
auto method_default_(auto MyTrait this) std::size_t {
return this.method(42);
}
class MyClassDefault {
public:
std::size_t method(std::size_t value) {
std::cout << value << std::endl;
return value;
}
std::size_t method() {
return method_default_(this);
}
}
```
# Require concept methods to take `const this`?
@ -165,8 +117,9 @@ public:
---
`is_const` could be used to declare the entire class is const, but don't think you could require
const-ness for only certain methods. Can use `const_cast` to assert "constness" though:
`is_const` could be used to declare the class is const for an entire concept, but don't think you
could require const-ness for only certain methods. Can use `const_cast` to assert "constness"
though:
```c++
#include <concepts>
@ -294,8 +247,167 @@ Alternately, `ClientExt: AnotherTrait` implementations where the default `Client
is used. To do this, Rust compiles the entire crate as a single translation unit, and the orphan
rule.
Rust can do one thing special though - can run methods on literals - `42.my_method()`.
# Checking a type fulfills the concept
With concepts, you find out that there's an issue only when you attempt to use it. Traits in Rust
will let you know during implementation that something is wrong (there's a local error).
https://www.ecorax.net/as-above-so-below-1/
Can use `static_assert` to kinda make sure a contract is fulfilled:
```c++
#include <cstdint>
#include <type_traits>
template<typename T>
constexpr bool has_method = std::is_same_v<decltype(std::declval<T>().method()), std::uint64_t>;
class WithMethod {
public:
std::uint64_t method() { return 0; }
};
static_assert(has_method<WithMethod>);
class WithoutMethod {};
// <source>: In instantiation of 'constexpr const bool has_method<WithoutMethod>':
// <source>:16:16: required from here
// <source>:5:71: error: 'class WithoutMethod' has no member named 'method'
// 5 | constexpr bool has_method = std::is_same_v<decltype(std::declval<T>().method()), std::uint64_t>;
// | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^~~~~~
// <source>:16:15: error: non-constant condition for static assertion
// 16 | static_assert(has_method<WithoutMethod>);
// |
static_assert(has_method<WithoutMethod>);
```
We'd rather the example fail the static assert, rather than have an error on the `decltype`, but it
does get the job done; we're told explicitly that `WithoutMethod` has no member `method`, so the
error message for `decltype()` is actually much nicer than the `static_assert`.. Can use
[custom SFINAE](https://stackoverflow.com/a/257382) or
[experimental](https://stackoverflow.com/a/22014784)
[type traits](http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/experimental/is_detected) to fix those issues, but
mostly please just use concepts.
# Potentially excluded
Some ideas related to traits, but that I'm not sure sufficiently fit the theme. May be worth
investigating in a future post?
## Visibility
Worth acknowledging that C++ can do interesting things with `protected`, `friend`, and others, that
Rust can't. However, Rust can limit trait implementations to current crate ("sealed traits"), where
C++ concepts are purely duck typing.
## Move/consume `self` as opposed to `&self`?
Not exactly polymorphism, but is a significant feature of Rust trait system. Is there a way to force
`std::move(object).method()`? C++ can still use objects after movement makes them invalid, so not
sure that it makes conceptual sense - it's your job to prevent use-after-move, not the compiler's.
## Automatic markers?
Alternately, conditional inheritance based on templates?
## Arbitrary `self`
Handled as part of section on `impl Trait` for remote type, not sure this needs it's own section.
Forms the basis for Rust's async system, but used very rarely aside from that.
[`std::enable_shared_from_this`](https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/memory/enable_shared_from_this)
`enable_unique_from_this` doesn't make a whole lot of sense, but Rust can do it:
```rust
struct MyStruct {}
impl MyStruct {
fn my_function(self: &Box<Self>) {}
}
fn main() {
let unboxed = MyStruct {};
// error[E0599]: no method named `my_function` found for struct `MyStruct` in the current scope
// unboxed.my_function();
let boxed = Box::new(MyStruct {});
boxed.my_function();
boxed.my_function();
}
```
Interestingly enough, can't bind `static` version using equality:
```c++
#include <iterator>
#include <vector>
#include <concepts>
std::uint64_t free_get_value() {
return 24;
}
class MyClass {
public:
// <source>:11:47: error: invalid pure specifier (only '= 0' is allowed) before ';' token
std::uint64_t get_value() = free_get_value;
};
int main() {
auto x = MyClass {};
}
```
---
Turns out the purpose of `enable_shared_from_this` is so that you can create new shared instances of
yourself from within yourself, it doesn't have anything to do with enabling extra functionality
depending on whether you're owned by a shared pointer. _At best_, you could have other runtime
checks to see if you're owned exclusively, or as part of some other smart pointer, but the type
system can't enforce that. And if you're _not_ owned by that smart pointer, what then? Exceptions?
UFCS would be able to help with this - define new methods like:
```c++
template<>
void do_a_thing(std::unique_ptr<MyType> value) {}
```
In this case, the extension is actually on `unique_ptr`, but the overload resolution applies only to
pointers of `MyType`. Note that `shared_ptr` and others seem to work by overloading `operator ->` to
proxy function calls to the delegates; you could inherit `std::shared_ptr` and specialize the
template to add methods for specific classes I guess? But it's still inheriting `shared_ptr`, you
can't define things directly on it.
Generally, "you can just use free functions" seems like a shoddy explanation. We could standardize
overload `MyClass_init` as a constructor and function similar to C, etc., but the language is
designed to assist us so we don't have to do crap like that. I do hope UFCS becomes a thing.
That said, it is interesting that for Rust, arbitrary self can be replaced with traits:
```rust
trait MyTrait {
fn my_function(&self);
}
impl MyTrait for Box<MyStruct> {
fn my_function(&self) {}
}
```
Just have to make sure that `MyTrait` is in scope all the time, and that's not fun. Ultimately, Rust
kinda already has UFCS. It's only "kinda" because you have to bring it in scope, and it's
potentially unclear when it's being used (extension traits), but it does get the basic job done.
# Trait objects as arguments
Handled as part of `decltype` and compiler-named types, not sure it needs it's own section.
```rust
trait MyTrait {
fn some_method(&self);
@ -357,67 +469,3 @@ disorienting.
`dyn Trait` seems to be used in Rust mostly for type erasure - `Box<Pin<dyn Future>>` for example,
but is generally fairly rare, and C++ probably doesn't suffer for not having it. Can use inheritance
to force virtual if truly necessary, but not sure why you'd need that.
# Checking a type fulfills the concept
With concepts, you find out that there's an issue only when you attempt to use it. Traits in Rust
will let you know during implementation that something is wrong (there's a local error).
https://www.ecorax.net/as-above-so-below-1/
Can use `static_assert` to kinda make sure a contract is fulfilled:
```c++
#include <cstdint>
#include <type_traits>
template<typename T>
constexpr bool has_method = std::is_same_v<decltype(std::declval<T>().method()), std::uint64_t>;
class WithMethod {
public:
std::uint64_t method() { return 0; }
};
static_assert(has_method<WithMethod>);
class WithoutMethod {};
// <source>: In instantiation of 'constexpr const bool has_method<WithoutMethod>':
// <source>:16:16: required from here
// <source>:5:71: error: 'class WithoutMethod' has no member named 'method'
// 5 | constexpr bool has_method = std::is_same_v<decltype(std::declval<T>().method()), std::uint64_t>;
// | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^~~~~~
// <source>:16:15: error: non-constant condition for static assertion
// 16 | static_assert(has_method<WithoutMethod>);
// |
static_assert(has_method<WithoutMethod>);
```
We'd rather the example fail the static assert, rather than have an error on the `decltype`, but it
does get the job done; we're told explicitly that `WithoutMethod` has no member `method`, so the
error message for `decltype()` is actually much nicer than the `static_assert`.. Can use
[custom SFINAE](https://stackoverflow.com/a/257382) or
[experimental](https://stackoverflow.com/a/22014784)
[type traits](http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/experimental/is_detected) to fix those issues, but
mostly please just use concepts.
# Visibility
Worth acknowledging that C++ can do interesting things with `protected`, `friend`, and others, that
Rust can't. However, Rust can limit trait implementations to current crate ("sealed traits"), where
C++ concepts are purely duck typing.
# Potentially excluded
Some ideas related to traits, but that I'm not sure sufficiently fit the theme. May be worth
investigating in a future post?
## Move/consume `self` as opposed to `&self`?
Not exactly polymorphism, but is a significant feature of Rust trait system. Is there a way to force
`std::move(object).method()`? C++ can still use objects after movement makes them invalid, so not
sure that it makes conceptual sense - it's your job to prevent use-after-move, not the compiler's.
## Automatic markers?
Alternately, conditional inheritance based on templates?