--- layout: post title: "Tips for Implementing `Future`" description: "" category: tags: [python] --- When support for async/await launched in Rust, it came with a couple of technical caveats; it was deemed more beneficial to release a minimum viable product than wait for a feature-complete release. So far, this model seems to have worked out well. Asynchronous code originally required thread-local storage for context tracking which mean that it could only be used in projects that included the Rust standard library. It wasn't a hard requirement; nothing about the async design mandated context tracking in this way. But given that most users of asynchronous code relied on the standard library anyway, supporting asynchronous `no_std` projects was left as something to be addressed later. After some fantastic work, thread-local storage is no longer used and there's some incredibly cool work being done to enable Rust on `no_std` and embedded systems. While asynchronous programming is very frequently used to model disk or network I/O, the same principles can be applied to monitoring signals received from GPIO pins. NOTE: Should I mention something about how cool it is that we can have `async` without needing heap allocations or type erasure like in every other `async` implementation? One other missing feature in the initial async support was being able to write traits that contained `async fn` methods Normally, when an `async fn` function is declared, the compiler does some magic to the function signature: ```rust struct R; // When you write a function like this: async fn read_bytes(s: TcpStream) -> R { /* ... */ } // ...the compiler effectively transforms it into this: fn read_bytes(s: TcpStream) -> impl Future { /* ... */ } ``` This special return type (the `impl Future` thing) tells the compiler "I have no idea what the _exact_ return type will be, but it will be something that implements `Future`, just figure it out for me." If you're writing static or `struct` functions, that's no issue, the compiler can figure everything out for you. However, this "figure it out for me" mentality doesn't work when used with traits. The reasons are varied and complex and out of scope for this discussion. But if we want to mix traits and asynchronous code, we simply need to make sure the trait method returns a type that implements the `Future` trait: ```rust use std::future::Future; use std::pin::Pin; use std::task::{Context, Poll}; pub struct Byte(u8); // Implementing this section of the code is what we'll be talking about. // vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv impl Future for Byte { type Output = u8; fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, _cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll { return Poll::Ready(self.0); } } // ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ pub trait ByteReader { fn get_byte(&self) -> Byte; } pub async fn my_function(b: impl ByteReader) -> u8 { b.get_byte().await } ``` Because of some Rust-specific issues (the `Pin`/`Unpin` system, unhelpful compiler messages), implementing `Future` directly can be rather difficult. It's possible to use crates like `async_trait` to work around the limitation, but if you're interested in building your own futures, these techniques should make the process at least a bit easier. # Implement functionality before structure Don't `impl Future` right away; use a separate method and pass eevrything in. It's helpful to de-couple "what you need in order to function" from "how you get those things"; are you supposed to use `#[pin_project]` or `let Self { } = &mut *self` or maybe just `&mut self.value`? Self-pinning makes things weird, and it's typically safe to deal with those questions later. Two guidelines: 1. Everything that needs to be `poll`-ed should be passed as `Pin<&mut T>` 2. Everything else passed by reference. Don't call this function before it's ready; errors elsewhere in the code can make it difficult to understand if the problem is in your "inner" function implementation, or the `impl Future` implementation. # Dealing with unfulfilled trait bounds Should also add something about how `AsyncBufRead` isn't implemented for `&R3`, but _is_ after deref (`R3`). The errors become a lot more obvious if you try to deref `self.reader`: ```rust use futures_io::AsyncBufRead; use std::future::Future; use std::pin::Pin; use std::task::{Context, Poll}; fn poll_once(mut reader: Pin<&mut R1>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<()> { reader.as_mut().poll_fill_buf(cx); return Poll::Ready(()); } struct MyStruct<'a, R2: ?Sized> { reader: &'a R2, } impl Future for MyStruct<'_, R3> { type Output = (); fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll { // Important bit is the `*self.reader` here poll_once(Pin::new(&mut *self.reader), cx) } } ``` ```text error[E0596]: cannot borrow data in a dereference of `std::pin::Pin<&mut MyStruct<'_, R3>>` as mutable --> src/lib.rs:19:28 | 12 | reader: &'a R2, | ------ help: consider changing this to be mutable: `&'a mut R2` ... 19 | poll_once(Pin::new(&mut *self.reader), cx) | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ cannot borrow as mutable error[E0596]: cannot borrow `self` as mutable, as it is not declared as mutable --> src/lib.rs:19:34 | 18 | fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll { | ---- help: consider changing this to be mutable: `mut self` 19 | poll_once(Pin::new(&mut *self.reader), cx) | ^^^^ cannot borrow as mutable ``` Now, we can see that `self` can't be borrowed as mutable (it needs to be marked `mut self: Pin<&mut Self>`) and that the reader can't be borrowed as mutable (the struct definition needs `&'a mut R2`). After those are fixed, we're good to go. # Don't feel bad about requiring `Unpin` For trait bounds, don't require it unless you need to, but don't hesitate to add it if the compiler thinks you should. ```rust use futures_io::AsyncBufRead; use std::future::Future; use std::pin::Pin; use std::task::{Context, Poll}; fn poll_once(mut reader: Pin<&mut R1>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<()> { reader.as_mut().poll_fill_buf(cx); return Poll::Ready(()); } struct MyStruct<'a, R2: ?Sized> { reader: &'a R2, } impl Future for MyStruct<'_, R3> { type Output = (); fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll { poll_once(Pin::new(&mut self.reader), cx) } } ``` The type bounds for `R1` and `R3` seem to be identical, but are actually slightly different: ```text error[E0277]: `R3` cannot be unpinned --> src/lib.rs:19:9 | 6 | fn poll_once(mut reader: Pin<&mut R1>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<()> { | ------------ required by this bound in `poll_once` ... 19 | poll_once(Pin::new(&mut self.reader), cx) | ^^^^^^^^^ the trait `std::marker::Unpin` is not implemented for `R3` | = note: required because of the requirements on the impl of `futures_io::if_std::AsyncBufRead` for `&mut R3` help: consider further restricting this bound | 15 | impl Future for MyStruct<'_, R3> { | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ``` For struct, if they have no `Pin` elements, `Unpin` is automatically implemented. Just need to make sure that type bounds contain `Unpin`, or weird things happen when trying to use them: ```rust #![allow(unused_mut)] use std::future::Future; use std::pin::Pin; use std::task::{Context, Poll}; struct CantUnpin { items: Vec } impl Future for CantUnpin { type Output = (); fn poll(mut self: Pin<&mut Self>, _cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll { self.items.push(T::default()); Poll::Ready(()) } } struct CanUnpin { items: Vec } impl Future for CanUnpin { type Output = (); fn poll(mut self: Pin<&mut Self>, _cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll { self.items.push(T::default()); Poll::Ready(()) } } ``` ```text error[E0596]: cannot borrow data in a dereference of `std::pin::Pin<&mut CantUnpin>` as mutable --> src/lib.rs:14:9 | 14 | self.items.push(T::default()); | ^^^^^^^^^^ cannot borrow as mutable | = help: trait `DerefMut` is required to modify through a dereference, but it is not implemented for `std::pin::Pin<&mut CantUnpin>` ``` Rule of thumb: If you don't know whether it implements `Unpin`, it almost certainly does. # Know what the escape hatches are When used sparingly, either `#[async_trait]` or `BoxFuture` can enable async functionality in code that will later not need the allocations. Use the escape hatch when you need to such that you can continue making incremental improvements later. Specific trick: use `BoxFuture` for type erasure: ```rust use std::future::Future; use std::pin::Pin; use std::task::{Context, Poll}; use futures::future::BoxFuture; async fn function1() {} async fn function2() -> u8 { 0 } pub struct MyStruct { f: BoxFuture<'static, T> } impl Future for MyStruct { type Output = T; fn poll(mut self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll { self.f.as_mut().poll(cx) } } pub fn another_function() -> MyStruct { MyStruct { f: Box::pin(async { function1().await; function2().await }) } } ``` There's one allocation because of `Box::pin()`, but that's it. We're allowed to use an opaque `impl Future` and still return values from it.